Dualism:

Dualism refers to the philosophical stance that postulates the existence of two fundamental, contrasting, and irreducible principles or substances.

1. Substances:

Dualism posits the existence of two distinct and independent substances that make up reality: the physical/material substance and the non-physical/immaterial substance.

2. Mind-Body Dualism:

Mind-body dualism specifically addresses the relationship between the mind and body, asserting that they are separate and different entities.

3. Cartesian Dualism:

Cartesian dualism, named after René Descartes, proposes that the mind and body are separate entities that interact with each other, with the mind being non-physical and the body being physical.

4. Interactionist Dualism:

Interactionist dualism expands on Cartesian dualism by proposing that the mind and body not only coexist but also interact with each other, influencing and being influenced by their respective actions.

5. Epistemological Dualism:

Epistemological dualism refers to the distinction between two types of knowledge: empirical (based on sensory experience) and rational (based on reasoning and logic).

6. Moral Dualism:

Moral dualism is the belief in the existence of two opposing forces or principles governing good and evil, resulting in a dichotomous ethical system.

7. Criticisms of Dualism:

Dualism has faced various criticisms, including the challenges of explaining the interaction between mind and body, the problem of mental causation, and the lack of empirical evidence to support the existence of a non-physical substance.